In structure scientific knowledge there are two levels:

empirical level;

Theoretical level.

For the knowledge gained on empirical level , it is characteristic that they are the result of direct contact with reality in observation or experiment.

Theoretical level represents, as it were, a section of the object under study from a certain angle of view, given by the worldview of the researcher. It is built with a clear focus on explaining objective reality and its main task is a description, systematization and explanation of the entire set of empirical level data.

The empirical and theoretical levels have a certain autonomy, but they cannot be torn off (separated) from one another.

The theoretical level differs from the empirical one in that it provides a scientific explanation of the facts obtained at the empirical level. At this level, specific scientific theories are formed, and it is characterized by the fact that it operates with an intellectually controlled object of knowledge, while at the empirical level - with a real object. Its significance lies in the fact that it can develop, as it were, on its own, without direct contact with reality.

The empirical and theoretical levels are organically linked. The theoretical level does not exist on its own, but is based on data from the empirical level.

Despite the theoretical workload, the empirical level is more stable than theory, due to the fact that the theories with which the interpretation of empirical data is associated are theories of a different level. Therefore, empiricism (practice) is a criterion for the truth of a theory.

The empirical level of cognition is characterized by the use of the following methods for studying objects.

Surveillance - a system for fixing and registering the properties and relationships of the object under study. The functions of this method are: fixing the registration of information and preliminary classification of factors.

Experiment- this is a system of cognitive operations that is carried out in relation to objects placed in such conditions (specially created) that should contribute to the discovery, comparison, measurement of objective properties, connections, relationships.

Measurement as a method, it is a system for fixing and registering the quantitative characteristics of the measured object. For economic and social systems measurement procedures are associated with indicators: statistical, reporting, planned;

Essence descriptions, as a specific method of obtaining empirical knowledge consists in the systematization of data obtained as a result of observation, experiment, measurement. Data are expressed in the language of a certain science in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs and other notations. Thanks to the systematization of facts that generalize certain aspects of phenomena, the object under study is reflected as a whole.

The theoretical level is highest level scientific knowledge.

scheme theoretical level of knowledge can be represented as follows:

Mental experiment and idealization based on the mechanism of transferring the results of practical actions fixed in the object;

Development of knowledge in logical forms: concepts, judgments, conclusions, laws, scientific ideas, hypotheses, theories;

Logical verification of the validity of theoretical constructions;

Application of theoretical knowledge in practice, in social activities.

It is possible to identify the main characteristics of theoretical knowledge:

The object of knowledge is determined purposefully under the influence of the internal logic of the development of science or the urgent requirements of practice;

The subject of knowledge is idealized on the basis of a thought experiment and design;

Cognition is carried out in logical forms, which is understood as a way of connecting the elements that make up the content of thought about the objective world.

There are the following types of forms of scientific knowledge:

General logical: concepts, judgments, conclusions;

Local-logical: scientific ideas, hypotheses, theories, laws.

concept- this is a thought that reflects the property and necessary features of an object or phenomenon. Concepts are: general, singular, concrete, abstract, relative, absolute, etc. others General concepts associated with some set of objects or phenomena, singular ones refer only to one, specific ones - to specific objects or phenomena, abstract to their individual features, relative concepts are always presented in pairs, and absolute ones do not contain paired relations.

Judgment- this is a thought that contains the affirmation or denial of something through the connection of concepts. Judgments are affirmative and negative, general and particular, conditional and disjunctive, etc.

inference is a process of thinking that connects a sequence of two or more propositions, resulting in a new proposition. In essence, a conclusion is a conclusion that makes it possible to move from thinking to practical actions. Inferences are of two types: direct; indirect.

In direct inferences, one proceeds from one judgment to another, while in indirect inferences, the transition from one judgment to another is carried out by means of a third one.

The process of cognition goes from a scientific idea to a hypothesis, subsequently turning into a law or theory.

Consider the main elements of the theoretical level of knowledge.

Idea- an intuitive explanation of the phenomenon without intermediate argumentation and awareness of the totality of connections. The idea reveals previously unnoticed regularities of the phenomenon, based on the knowledge already available about it.

Hypothesis- an assumption about the cause that causes this effect. A hypothesis is always based on an assumption, the reliability of which at a certain level of science and technology cannot be confirmed.

If the hypothesis is consistent with the observed facts, then it is called a law or theory.

Law- necessary, stable, recurring relationships between phenomena in nature and society. Laws are specific, general and universal.

The law reflects the general connections and relations inherent in all phenomena of a given kind, class.

Theory- a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic view of the patterns and essential connections of reality. It arises as a result of the generalization of cognitive activity and practice and is a mental reflection and reproduction of reality. The theory has a number of structural elements:

Data- knowledge about an object or phenomenon, the reliability of which has been proven.

Axioms- Propositions accepted without logical proof.

Postulates- statements accepted within the framework of any scientific theory as true, playing the role of an axiom.

Principles- the main starting points of any theory, doctrine, science or worldview.

Concepts- thoughts in which objects of a certain class are generalized and distinguished according to certain general (specific) features.

Regulations- formulated thoughts expressed in the form of a scientific statement.

Judgments- thoughts expressed as a declarative sentence, which can be true or false.

There is a movement from ignorance to knowledge. Thus, the first stage of the cognitive process is the definition of what we do not know. It is important to clearly and rigorously define the problem, separating what we already know from what we do not yet know. problem(from the Greek. problema - task) is a complex and controversial issue that needs to be resolved.

The second step in is the development of a hypothesis (from the Greek. Hypothesis - assumption). Hypothesis - this is a scientifically based assumption that needs to be tested.

If the hypothesis is proven a large number facts, it becomes a theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research). Theory is a system of knowledge that describes and explains certain phenomena; such, for example, are evolutionary theory, the theory of relativity, quantum theory, etc.

When choosing the best theory, the degree of its testability plays an important role. A theory is reliable if it is confirmed by objective facts (including newly discovered ones) and if it is distinguished by clarity, distinctness, and logical rigor.

Scientific facts

Distinguish between objective and scientific data. objective fact is a real-life object, process or event. For example, the death of Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov (1814-1841) in a duel is a fact. scientific fact is knowledge that is confirmed and interpreted within the framework of a generally accepted system of knowledge.

Estimates are opposed to facts and reflect the significance of objects or phenomena for a person, his approving or disapproving attitude towards them. Scientific facts usually fix the objective world as it is, and assessments reflect the subjective position of a person, his interests, the level of his moral and aesthetic consciousness.

Most of the difficulties for science arise in the process of moving from hypothesis to theory. There are methods and procedures that allow you to test a hypothesis and prove it or reject it as incorrect.

method(from the Greek methodos - the path to the goal) is the rule, method, method of knowledge. In general, a method is a system of rules and regulations that allows you to explore an object. F. Bacon called the method "a lamp in the hands of a traveler walking in the dark."

Methodology is a broader concept and can be defined as:

• a set of methods used in any science;
• general doctrine of method.

Since the criteria of truth in its classical scientific understanding are, on the one hand, sensory experience and practice, and on the other hand, clarity and logical distinctness, all known methods can be divided into empirical (experimental, practical ways knowledge) and theoretical (logical procedures).

Empirical methods of knowledge

basis empirical methods are sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation) and instrumental data. These methods include:

• observation- purposeful perception of phenomena without interference in them;
• experiment— study of phenomena under controlled and controlled conditions;
• measurement - determination of the ratio of the measured value to
• standard (for example, a meter);
• comparison- identifying the similarities or differences of objects or their features.

There are no pure empirical methods in scientific knowledge, since even for simple observation, preliminary theoretical foundations are necessary - the choice of an object for observation, the formulation of a hypothesis, etc.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Actually theoretical methods based on rational knowledge (concept, judgment, conclusion) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:

• analysis- the process of mental or real dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);
• synthesis - connection of the sides of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;
• - combining various objects into groups based on common features (classification of animals, plants, etc.);
• abstraction - distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object with the aim of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);
• formalization - displaying knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);
• analogy - inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect on the basis of their similarity in a number of other respects;
• modeling— creation and study of a substitute (model) of an object (for example, computer modeling of the human genome);
• idealization- creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it ( geometric point, ball, ideal gas);
• deduction - moving from the general to the particular;
• induction- the movement from the particular (facts) to the general statement.

Theoretical methods require empirical facts. So, although induction itself is a theoretical logical operation, it still requires experimental verification of each particular fact, and therefore is based on empirical knowledge, and not on theoretical. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other. All the methods listed above are methods-techniques (specific rules, action algorithms).

Wider methods-approaches indicate direction and general way problem solving. Methods-approaches may include a variety of various tricks. These are the structural-functional method, hermeneutic, etc. The most common methods-approaches are philosophical methods:

• metaphysical- consideration of the object in mowing, static, out of connection with other objects;
• dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interconnection, internal inconsistency and unity.

Absoluteization of one method as the only true one is called dogma(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical piling up of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.

Empirical level of knowledge

The subject of research at the empirical level is the properties, connections, relations of an object that are accessible to sensory perception. The empirical objects of science should be distinguished from the objects of reality, since the former are certain abstractions that single out in reality a certain limited set of properties, connections and relationships. A real object has an infinite number of attributes, it is inexhaustible in its properties, connections, relationships. This is what determines the epistemological orientation of the study at the empirical level - the study of phenomena (phenomena) and superficial connections between them and the dominance of the sensory correlate in the study.

The main task of cognition at the empirical level is to obtain initial empirical information about the object under study. Most often, such methods of cognition as observation and experiment are used for this.

Knowledge that is formed in the process of empirical research - observation, setting up and conducting experiments, collecting and describing observed phenomena and facts, their empirical systematization and generalization - is expressed in the form of a scientific fact and empirical generalization (law).

An empirical law is the result of an inductive generalization of experiments and is a probabilistic-true knowledge. Increasing the number of experiences does not in itself make empirical dependence reliable knowledge, since empirical generalization always deals with incomplete experience.

The main cognitive function that scientific knowledge performs at the empirical level is the description of phenomena.

Scientific research is not satisfied with the description of phenomena and empirical generalization, in an effort to reveal the causes and essential relationships between phenomena, the researcher moves to the theoretical level of knowledge.

Means and methods of empirical research. Observation and experiment, types of experiment

1. Observation- systematic, purposeful passive study of subjects, based mainly on the data of the senses. In the course of observation, we gain knowledge not only about the external aspects of the object of knowledge, but also - as the ultimate goal - about its essential properties and relationships.

Observation can be direct and indirect by various devices and other technical devices. As science develops, it becomes more and more complex and mediated. Observation captures and registers facts, describes the object of study, providing the empirical information necessary to formulate new problems and put forward hypotheses.

The main requirements that apply to a scientific description are aimed at making it as complete, accurate and objective as possible. The description should give a reliable and adequate picture of the object itself, accurately reflect the phenomena being studied. It is important that the concepts used for description always have a clear and unambiguous meaning. An important point observation is the interpretation of its results - decoding of instrument readings, etc.

2. Experiment is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. The subject actively intervenes in the research process, influencing the object under study with the help of special tools and devices, purposefully and permanently changes the object, revealing its new properties. Thanks to this, the researcher manages to isolate the object from the influence of side effects and obscuring its essence and to study the phenomenon in pure form; systematically change the conditions of the process; repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under strictly fixed and controllable conditions.

The main features of the experiment: a) a more active (than during observation) attitude towards the object of study, up to its change and transformation; b) the ability to control the behavior of the object and check the results; c) multiple reproducibility of the object under study at the request of the researcher; d) the possibility of discovering such properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions.

Types (types) of experiments are very diverse. So, according to their functions, they distinguish research (search), verification (control), reproducing experiments. According to the nature of the objects are distinguished physical, chemical, biological, social etc. There are experiments qualitative and quantitative. Widespread in modern science received a thought experiment - a system of mental procedures carried out on idealized objects.

3. Comparison- a cognitive operation that reveals the similarity or difference of objects (or stages of development of the same object), i.e. their identity and differences. It only makes sense in the aggregate. homogeneous objects, forming a class. Comparison of objects in the class is carried out according to the features that are essential for this consideration. At the same time, objects compared on one basis may be incomparable on another.

Comparison is the basis of such a logical device as analogy (see below), and serves as the starting point for the comparative historical method. Its essence is the identification of the general and the particular in the cognition of various stages (periods, phases) of the development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting phenomena.

4. Description- a cognitive operation consisting in fixing the results of an experience (observation or experiment) using certain notation systems adopted in science.

5. Measure e - a set of actions performed using certain means in order to find the numerical value of the measured value in the accepted units of measurement.

It should be emphasized that the methods of empirical research are never implemented "blindly", but are always "theoretically loaded", guided by certain conceptual ideas.

In knowledge, two levels are distinguished: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical (from Gr. Emreiria - experience) level of knowledge - this is knowledge obtained directly from experience with some rational processing of the properties and relations of the object is known. It is always the basis, the basis for the theoretical level of knowledge.

Theoretical level is knowledge gained through abstract thinking.

A person begins the process of cognition of an object from its external description, fixes its individual properties, sides. Then he goes deep into the content of the object, reveals the laws to which it is subject, proceeds to explain the properties of the object, combines knowledge about the individual aspects of the object into a single one, complete system, and the deep versatile specific knowledge about the subject obtained in this case is a theory that has a certain internal logical structure.

It is necessary to distinguish the concept of "sensual" and "rational" from the concepts of "empirical" and "theoretical". "Sensual" and "rational" characterize the dialectics of the process of reflection in general, while "empirical" and "theoretical" belong to the sphere of scientific knowledge only.

Empirical knowledge is formed in the process of interaction with the object of study, when we directly influence it, interact with it, process the results and draw a conclusion. But obtaining individual empirical facts and laws does not yet allow one to construct a system of laws. In order to know the essence, it is necessary to go to the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are always inextricably linked and mutually condition each other. Thus, empirical research, revealing new facts, new observational and experimental data, stimulates the development of the theoretical level, poses new problems and tasks for it. In turn, theoretical research, considering and concretizing the theoretical content of science, opens up new perspectives for explaining and predicting facts, and thereby orients and directs empirical knowledge. Empirical knowledge is mediated by theoretical knowledge - theoretical knowledge indicates exactly which phenomena and events should be the object of empirical research and under what conditions the experiment should be carried out. Theoretically, it also turns out and indicates the limits in which the results at the empirical level are true, in which empirical knowledge can be used in practice. This is precisely the heuristic function of the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

The boundary between the empirical and theoretical levels is rather arbitrary, their independence relative to each other is relative. The empirical passes into the theoretical, and what was once theoretical, at another, higher stage of development, becomes empirically accessible. In any sphere of scientific knowledge, at all levels, there is a dialectical unity of the theoretical and empirical. The leading role in this unity of dependence on the subject, conditions and already existing, obtained scientific results belongs either to the empirical or to the theoretical. The basis of the unity of the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge is the unity of scientific theory and research practice.

Basic methods of scientific knowledge

Each level of scientific knowledge uses its own methods. So, at the empirical level, such basic methods as observation, experiment, description, measurement, modeling are used. Theoretically - analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, induction, deduction, idealization, historical and logical methods, and the like.

Observation is a systematic and purposeful perception of objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships in natural conditions or under experimental conditions with the aim of knowing the object under study.

The main monitoring functions are as follows:

Fixation and registration of facts;

Preliminary classification of facts already recorded on the basis of certain principles formulated on the basis of existing theories;

Comparison of recorded facts.

With the complication of scientific knowledge, the goal, plan, theoretical guidelines, and comprehension of the results are gaining more and more weight. As a result, the role of theoretical thinking in observation increases.

It is especially difficult to observe social sciences, where its results largely depend on the worldview and methodological attitudes of the observer, his attitude to the object.

The method of observation is limited by the method, since with its help it is only possible to fix certain properties and connections of an object, but it is impossible to reveal their essence, nature, development trends. Comprehensive observation of the object is the basis for the experiment.

An experiment is a study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study, or by changing the course of the process in a certain direction.

Unlike simple observation, which does not involve an active impact on the object, an experiment is an active intervention of the researcher into natural phenomena, in the course of the processes that are being studied. An experiment is a kind of practice in which practical action is organically combined with the theoretical work of thought.

The significance of the experiment lies not only in the fact that with its help science explains the phenomena of the material world, but also in the fact that science, relying on experience, directly masters one or another of the studied phenomena. Therefore, the experiment serves as one of the main means of communication between science and production. After all, it allows you to verify the correctness of scientific conclusions and discoveries, new patterns. The experiment serves as a means of research and invention of new devices, machines, materials and processes in industrial production, necessary step practical testing of new scientific and technical discoveries.

The experiment is widely used not only in natural sciences, but also in social practice, where it plays an important role in the knowledge and management of social processes.

The experiment has its own specific features compared to other methods:

The experiment makes it possible to study objects in the so-called pure form;

The experiment allows you to explore the properties of objects in extreme conditions, which contributes to a deeper penetration into their essence;

An important advantage of the experiment is its repeatability, due to which this method acquires special significance and value in scientific knowledge.

A description is an indication of the features of an object or phenomenon, both essential and non-essential. Description, as a rule, is applied to single, individual objects for a more complete acquaintance with them. Its purpose is to give the most complete information about the object.

Measurement is certain system fixing and recording the quantitative characteristics of the object under study using various measuring instruments and apparatus. With the help of measurement, the ratio of one quantitative characteristic of an object to another, homogeneous with it, taken as a unit of measurement, is determined. The main functions of the measurement method are, firstly, fixing the quantitative characteristics of the object; secondly, classification and comparison of measurement results.

Modeling is the study of an object (original) by creating and studying its copy (model), which, by its properties to a certain extent, reproduces the properties of the object under study.

Modeling is used when the direct study of objects for some reason is impossible, difficult or impractical. There are two main types of modeling: physical and mathematical. On the present stage the development of scientific knowledge, a particularly large role is given to computer modeling. A computer that operates special program, is able to simulate the most real processes: fluctuations in market prices, orbits spaceships, demographic processes, other quantitative parameters of the development of nature, society, an individual.

Methods of the theoretical level of knowledge.

Analysis is the division of an object into its constituent parts (sides, features, properties, relationships) with the aim of their comprehensive study.

Synthesis is the union of previously identified parts (sides, features, properties, relationships) of an object into a single whole.

Analysis and synthesis are dialectically contradictory and interdependent methods of cognition. Cognition of an object in its concrete integrity presupposes a preliminary division of it into components and consideration of each of them. This task is performed by analysis. It makes it possible to single out the essential, that which forms the basis of the connection of all aspects of the object under study. That is, dialectical analysis is a means of penetrating the essence of things. But, while playing an important role in cognition, analysis does not provide knowledge of the concrete, knowledge of the object as a unity of the manifold, unity various definitions. This task is performed by synthesis. So, analysis and synthesis are organically interconnected and mutually condition each other at each stage of the process of theoretical knowledge.

Abstraction is a method of abstracting from certain properties and relations of an object and at the same time focusing on those that are the direct subject of scientific research. Abstracting contributes to the penetration of knowledge into the essence of phenomena, the movement of knowledge from the phenomenon to the essence. It is clear that abstraction dismembers, coarsens, schematizes an integral mobile reality. However, this is precisely what allows a deeper study of individual aspects of the subject "in its purest form." And that means getting into their essence.

Generalization is a method of scientific knowledge that captures the general features and properties of a certain group of objects, makes the transition from the individual to the special and the general, from the less general to the more general.

In the process of cognition, it is often necessary, relying on already existing knowledge, draw conclusions that are new knowledge about the unknown. This is done using methods such as induction and deduction.

Induction is such a method of scientific knowledge, when, on the basis of knowledge about the individual, a conclusion is made about the general. This is a method of reasoning by which the validity of the put forward assumption or hypothesis is established. In real cognition, induction always acts in unity with deduction, is organically connected with it.

Deduction is a method of cognition when, on the basis of general principle in a logical way, from certain propositions as true, new true knowledge about the individual is necessarily derived. With the help of this method, the individual is known on the basis of knowledge of general patterns.

Idealization is a method of logical modeling through which idealized objects are created. Idealization is aimed at the processes of conceivable construction of possible objects. The results of idealization are not arbitrary. In the limiting case, they correspond to individual real properties of objects or allow their interpretation based on the data of the empirical level of scientific knowledge. Idealization is associated with a "thought experiment", as a result of which, from a hypothetical minimum of some signs of the behavior of objects, the laws of their functioning are discovered or generalized. The boundaries of the effectiveness of idealization are determined by practice.

Historical and logical methods are organically linked. The historical method involves consideration of the objective process of the development of the object, its real history with all its twists and turns. This is a certain way of reproducing in thinking the historical process in its chronological sequence and concreteness.

The logical method is the way in which mentally reproduces the real historical process in its theoretical form, in the system of concepts.

The task of historical research is to reveal the specific conditions for the development of certain phenomena. The task of logical research is to reveal the role that individual elements of the system play in the development of the whole.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. Some general scientific methods are used only at the empirical level (observation, experiment, measurement), others - only at the theoretical (idealization, formalization), and some (for example, modeling) - both at the empirical and theoretical levels.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by a direct study of real-life, sensually perceived objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and setting up experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the actual data obtained in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. is also carried out. In addition, at this level of scientific knowledge - as a consequence of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical patterns.

The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out at the rational (logical) level of knowledge. At this level, the most profound, essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the studied objects and phenomena are revealed. The theoretical level is a higher level in scientific knowledge. The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.

Relationship between empiricism and theory

1. Qualitative difference between empirical and theoretical knowledge in science
2. The relationship between them, including an explanation of the mechanism of this relationship.

If the source of the content of empirical knowledge is information about objective reality obtained through observations and experimentation with it, then the basis of the content of theoretical knowledge is information about ideal objects that are products constructive activity thinking.

Theoretical knowledge is a complex structure, consisting of statements of varying degrees of generality.

1. Most general level- axioms, theoretical laws. For example, for classical mechanics, these are Newton's three laws (inertia; the relationship of force, mass and acceleration; equality of action and reaction forces).
2. The second, less general level of scientific theory is the particular theoretical laws that describe the structure, properties and behavior of ideal objects constructed from the original ideal objects. For classical mechanics, these are, for example, the laws of motion of an ideal pendulum.
3. The third, least general level of a developed scientific theory consists of particular, single theoretical statements about the properties and relations of some ideal objects.

Empirical and theoretical types of cognition differ not only in means, but also in methods of research activity.

At the empirical level, real experiment and real observation are used as the main methods. Important role also play methods of empirical description, focused on the maximum cleared of subjective layers of objective characteristics of the studied phenomena.

As for theoretical research, then special methods are applied here: idealization (method of constructing an idealized object); thought experiment with idealized objects; special methods of constructing a theory (ascent from the abstract to the concrete); methods of logical and historical research, etc.

All these features of means and methods are connected with the specifics of the subject of empirical and theoretical research. At each of these levels, a researcher can deal with the same objective reality, but he studies it in different subject sections, in different aspects, and therefore its vision, its representation in knowledge will be given in different ways.

By studying phenomena and the relationships between them, empirical knowledge capable of detecting the operation of an objective law. But it fixes this action, as a rule, in the form of empirical dependencies, which should be distinguished from a theoretical law as a special knowledge obtained as a result of a theoretical study of objects.

Empirical dependence is the result of inductive communication of experience and represents probabilistic-true knowledge. The theoretical law is always reliable knowledge. Obtaining such knowledge requires special research procedures.

It should be emphasized that an increase in the number of experiments in itself does not make empirical dependence a reliable fact, because induction always deals with incomplete, incomplete experience. No matter how many experiments we make and generalize them, a simple inductive generalization of experimental results does not lead to theoretical knowledge. Theory is not constructed by inductive generalization of experience.

So, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge differ in the subject, means and methods of research. In reality, these two layers of knowledge always interact.